Reflections on Resnick

Computer technology enables students to learn artistic, mathematical, and scientific concepts in a context that is representative of real world environments, without the need of real world objects. As a result of the creation of new and expanding learning environments, students can experience learning outside the controlled classroom environment. Students are now able to perform deeper thinking processes that are not confined to a single subject matter, but blend learning between topics. For example, Resnick (2001) points out that LEGO MindStorms takes the basic tactile learning process of building with blocks to a level that enables the student to manipulate the computer technology that is built in to the blocks to perform higher level computations. Resnick also states that national initiatives, such as “Learning Lab Denmark,” study learning in “all settings and stages of life” (p. 61).

If the adaptability of computers increases the capacity to learn in all settings and stages of life, then how those settings and stages are defined may change in the future. For example, play time is currently viewed as a respite from the demands of school work or other responsibilities. As a child advances in age, what he or she considers as play time changes, but the purpose of play time remains the same. Although “play” is instrumental in the development of social, large motor, and trouble-shooting skills, it is not an evaluated part of academic learning. However, the expanding potential of learning with computers may come at the cost of play time, which is a critical component of a child’s development (Butzin, 2005). As computer technology is increasingly adapted for use in traditional play toys, such as building blocks and rubber balls, greater is the potential that computerized play toys may be used explicitly for learning rather than simple play. Ultimately, play may be viewed not in terms of child development, but defined as an evaluative component of the learning process.

“Play,” is defined, in part, by opportunities within the structure of socially accepted activity. If the adaptability of computer technology impacts not only the mechanism for learning, but also the opportunity for learning, then society must face the potential that the traditional definition of learning activity can be affected by computer technology. As a society, we must remain mindful that computers are tools that enhance learning. However, if learning is to be impacted by computer technology to the extent that learning is redefined, then society must be cognizant of the need of retaining traditional aspects of human development.

References

Butzin, S. (2005). Triangulated learning: Make time to play. The Education Digest, 70(5), 20-24.

Resnick, M. (2001). Revolutionizing learning in the digital age. Publications from the forum for the future of higher education. Boulder, CO: Educause. Available online at http://www.educause.com/reources

Blog 9 - Assessment

Assessment is a critical component of the learning process. A student’s performance on an assessment is a demonstration of his or her acquisition of knowledge. However, assessment is viewed with disdain by teachers (Snowman & Biehler, 2006). Further, Snowman and Biehler state that teachers feel that performing assessment is inconsistent with their role as teacher. Such views can be attributed to the assumption that if a student performs poorly on an assessment, it is not only a measure of the student’s difficulty with his or her acquisition of knowledge, but also a reflection of the teacher’s inability to effectively facilitate the learning process. This assumption is compounded by the strict standards and assessments mandated for each school by state and federal governments. Thus, many teachers feel they teach to reach assessment goals rather than to help students acquire knowledge.

According to Mertler and Campbell (2005), teachers spend an estimated 50 percent of their time on assessment-related activity. Although assessment is a time-consuming activity, few teachers recognize the positive impact of assessment in the learning process. For example, students who are tested frequently over the course of a semester achieve higher final exam scores that those students who are not tested frequently (Snowman & Biehler, 2006). Trevisan (2000) also found that regularly performed assessment enhances student achievement. Despite the documented benefits of regularly administered classroom assessment, as of 1999, only 25 states require assessment competence as part of obtaining a teacher license.

As education reform proceeds to reflect the changes in teaching methods and learning environments, methods must be incorporated to appropriately assess knowledge. Teachers must be afforded the opportunity to participate in the development of assessment design (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory [NCREL], 1995). However, teachers, as well as education administrators and legislators, must recognize that assessment is a component of the learning process, not the evaluative end-point of knowledge acquisition. Assessment competence should not be viewed by educators as a required by-product of teaching efforts, but as a vital component of the teaching process. Assessment must be taught in preservice teaching programs as a vital element of teaching and learning. As educators develop methods to provide instruction to students using components of behaviorist, cognitivist, and constructivist learning theories, the methods used to assess learning must be likewise developed.

Education is a topic of great importance to the nation. The programs initiated to provide effective education that is relevant to the complexities of today’s society and global economy affect not only the student and teacher, but they impact the initiatives advocated by local, state, and federal administrators. Each state must incorporate assessment competence in teaching licensure programs, if each segment of our society is to have a relevant voice in educational reform.

References

Mertler, C. & Campbell, C. (2005). Measuring teachers’ knowledge & application of classroom assessment concenpts: Development of the assessment literacy inventory. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, April 11-15. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED490355)

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (1995). Critical issue: Rethinking assessment and its role in supporting educational reform. Retrieved November 8, 2006, from http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/assment/as700.htm

Snowman, J. & Biehler, R. (2006). Psychology applied to teaching (11^th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Trevisan, M. (2002). The states’ role in ensuring assessment competence. Phi Delta Kappan, 83(10), 766-772.

Thoughts on Bloom

The enduring benefits of education cannot be measured solely by a student’s successful completion of a set of courses at the conclusion of a pre-determined timeframe. Learning is a continuous and cumulative process. The potential for an adult’s success in a chosen career path is based greatly on the academic success during his or her childhood and young adult years, as measured by course letters, grade point averages, and standardized test scores. However, the impact of education must be viewed across the span of a lifetime. Bloom (1968) had the foresight to state that “learning throughout life (continuous learning) will be necessary for the largest proportion of the work force” (p.2).

The concept of “continuous learning,” or the impact of education over time, is important to every student. Time, as measured by hours and days, is a concept equally important. Learning “within time,” or in an allotted class period, continues to be part of the structure of the educational system in the United States. Time is a concept that teachers and students are mindful of at every point of the school day. A student who cannot easily grasp a concept during a class period must be afforded the time he or she needs to achieve mastery of the concept (Bloom, 1968).

Although tutoring is considered an effective strategy to facilitate mastery, several factors, including cost, availability, and scheduling, renders tutoring a prohibitive option for most students (Bloom, 1968). However, advances in technology open new avenues for students who do not easily gain mastery of concepts and subjects outside the time constraints of a class period. Students who would benefit from perspectives not offered by their teacher or textbook now can access computer-based learning tutorials, instructional Websites, and social computing Websites, among many other technologies, to stimulate their subject mastery. For example, Liu (2005) studied the incorporation of a hypermedia-enhanced problem-based learning environment to a sixth-grade science class. The product, titled Alien Rescue, not only improved students’ knowledge of astronomy from pretest to posttest, but increased their retention of the subject material. Liu suggested that the improvement was the result of students’ control of their learning environment and a sense of autonomy from the teacher.

Technologies that offer instruction can be made available to the student during study hall periods, during after-school tutoring sessions, or at home. Such instruction enables the student to participate in continued learning for the purpose of mastering a concept or subject at times convenient to the learner, yet places a minimal burden on their schedule. The opportunity for the student to master a subject using technology is not only beneficial for the purpose of achieving an excellent course grade, but it can positively impact his or her motivation for continued learning.

References

Bloom, B. (1968). Learning for mastery. Evaluation Comment, 1 (2), 1-12.

Lui, M. (2006). The effect of a hypermedia learning environment on middle school students’ motivation, attitude, and science knowledge. Computers in the Schools, 22 (3-4), 159-171.

Thoughts about Mindtools

The continuing integration of computers and other technologies in the classroom has resulted in a change of what is considered to be a traditional classroom setting, which consists of a teacher stand in the front of the classroom offering instruction in a variety of subjects to a group of students for extended periods of time. As learning theories have been developed and refined, the interaction of the teacher with his or her students has evolved from an environment with the teacher imparting his or her expert knowledge to the students, to a community of shared knowledge among students, with guidance from the teacher. The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards has recognized the change in a teacher’s role by proposing that teachers are “members of learning communities” (Snowman & Biehler, 2006).

While the role of the classroom teacher has changed over time, Snowman and Biehler (2006) assert that the teacher remains the focal point of the classroom and is essentially “on stage” (p. 11) during the course of the school day.

Jonassen, Carr, and Yueh (1998) contend that instructional technologies are not developed to directly instruct learners, but should be used to enable learners to construct knowledge. Further, Jonassen et al. (1998) contend that instructional technologies, specifically Mindtools, facilitate the creation of an “intellectual partnership” (p. 31) between the student and the computer and that computer technologies should be used “for engaging learners in reflective, critical thinking about the ideas they are studying” (p. 32). These points reflect on the potential benefits of the use of instructional technology for the student, but do not elaborate on the role of the teacher in a classroom that incorporates instructional technology.

Teachers who have been employed since before the advent of computers and other technologies in the classroom face the prospect of learning those technologies to successfully incorporate them in their instructional practices. Teachers with experience using technology, whether in or out of the classroom, may not require learning those technologies. However, both groups of teachers are obligated, regardless of their experience, to incorporate technology in the classroom properly, demonstrate proficiency in the use of the technology, and remain current in upgrades to the technology.

Pedagogy, or the art of teaching, is defined as “assisting students through interaction and activity in the ongoing academic and social events of the classroom” (Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence [CREDE], 2006). Because the teacher is the catalyst for interaction and activity in the classroom, each student looks to the teacher for guidance as he or she executes the cognitive learning processes to achieve his or her learning objective. However, as the use of technology in the classroom increases, the amount of class time available to the teacher to maintain his or her role as the focal point of students’ classroom experience decreases.

As schools continue to incorporate technology in the classroom, teachers must continue to be cognizant of their role as facilitators of instruction and to be the source of inspiration and guidance that computers cannot.

References

Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence (n.d.). Glossary. Retrieved October 27, 2006, from http://crede.berkeley.edu/tools/glossary.html

Jonassen, D., Carr, C., & Yueh, H. (1998). Computers as mindtools for engaging learners in critical thinking. TechTrends, 43 (2), 24-32.

Snowman, J. & Biehler, R. (2006). Psychology applied to teaching (11^th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin

Thoughts on Learning

The potential to learn exists during every moment of an individual’s life. From the moment of birth, an individual learns from his or her surroundings. As Papert (1993) suggests, a person’s continuous experiences of learning results in a “connectivity of knowledge” (p.105). A person can consciously and subconsciously use his or her existent knowledge to construct new knowledge.

Papert’s (1993) recollection of his efforts to recognize and identify flowers is a discourse on his frustrations and successes as a learner. As one who is a gardening hobbyist, I am particularly drawn to Papert’s methods to learn plant names. More specifically, I am intrigued by his eventual realization that his interest in flowers was a reflection of his interest in etymology. Because I find no difficulty remembering plant names, I find it interesting that my desire to learn a plant name is not for the purpose of understanding its etymology, but to be able to research the characteristics and growth habits of a plant. Clearly, Papert and I learn plant names for different reasons.

Papert (1993) states that a common notion of schooling is that if a child is unmotivated, he or she will not learn. Initial consideration of this premise leads to the assumption that simply identifying a learning objective will provide sufficient motivation for the learner. However, such an assumption does not weigh the evolution and maturation of each student’s expectations and his or her motivation to reach and exceed those expectations.

It is difficult, if not impossible, for a teacher in a classroom full of students to customize lesson plans to suite each student’s motivation to learn. A Behaviorist approach to instruction is more easily implemented in a large classroom, to accommodate the students’ collective expectation to achieve a passing grade. However, Constructivist aspects of learning, such as group projects and Constructivist-oriented Websites, can be incorporated in classroom instruction in an effort to fulfill each student’s motivation to meet his or her individual learning expectation.

References

Papert, S. (1993). The children’s machine: Rethinking school in the age of the computer. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Reflections on Thinking

The words and actions of an individual will affect not only that individual, but potentially many people. Well before the proliferation of the printed word by means of books, followed by magazines and newspapers, humans used the verbal word to express their thoughts, negotiate all forms of daily activities, pass down legends and history to the next generation, and develop strategies for future activities. Books offer a method to disseminate thoughts to the literate world. But, the written word is just one means by which thoughts are distributed and is not the sole process that facilitates critical thinking. Critical thinking is not dependent on the means by which information is delivered.

The term “critical thinking” is not easily defined. Petress (2004) offers several definitions of “critical thinking,” including ones from the fields of communication, education, philosophy, and psychology. The definitions include aspects that are common among each discipline, including knowledge, comprehension, inference, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation, (Petress) which directly correspond with each of the components of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Outcomes (Driscoll, 2000). There is no dispute that critical thinking occurs. The direct relationship between the cognitive outcomes defined by Bloom and the commonalities between each discipline’s definition of critical thinking demonstrate that critical thinking is a universal human activity. However, Petress points out that the definition of “critical thinking” presented by each discipline contains variations that exist within the context of each.

Tarlow and Spangler (2001) indicate that “watching movies, listening to books or information, and dictating directly to a computer, would make life easier” (p. 26) and suggest that the use of such technology may be at the cost of “our cognitive souls” (p.26). However, they do not cite the established use of voice recorders by students to record lectures or the use of laptop computers to transcribe lecture recordings. Students also use laptop computers to type notes during lectures. In these cases, a student uses currently available technology to facilitate his or her work, yet his or her ability to think critically is not adversely affected by the technology.

Tarlow and Spangler (2001) indicate that teachers are increasingly applying Gardner’s theories of multiple intelligences to the classroom. However, the authors do not specify which intelligence, or intelligences, may be most impacted by the expanding use of voice-to-text technology. A review of Gardner’s Eight Intelligences (Snowman & Biehler, 2006) offers an opportunity to consider how technology might not adversely affect critical thinking. An individual with musical or spatial intelligence will not likely need to write down in words the emotions they feel when he or she composes a new melody or sculpt a new figure. A naturalist or scientist may use a voice recorder to note observations in the laboratory or in the field. However, those verbal observations are recorded in written form for his or her subsequent retrieval or the retrieval by others. Ultimately, the student or teacher will use the form of technology that will best suite her or his purposes.

References

Driscoll, M. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2^nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Petress, K. (2004). Critical thinking: An extended definition. Education, 124 (3), 461-466.

Snowman, J. & Biehler, R. (2006). Psychology applied to teaching (11^th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Tarlow, M. & Spangler, K. (2001). Now more than ever: Will high-tech kids still think deeply? The Education Digest, 67(3), 23-27.

Refections on Diversity

Cultural diversity is an increasingly important component of instruction. As more recognition is given to the many races, ethnicities, and religions that contribute to present-day American culture, evaluators must emphasize that diverse cultural norms are properly manifested in instruction. Instructors at any level of education can no longer assume that a majority of their students are white and Christian. Additionally, in the United States, instruction for both genders has been recognized for decades as essential for all public school children. However, gender-based biases, such as the assumption that males have a greater aptitude for mathematics and science continue to exist.

Snowman and Biehler (2006) recognize the existence of gender bias in schools. The existence of gender bias is probably due to many factors, but the most likely cause for the difference in teachers’ interaction with both genders is preconceived social stereotypes. For example, teachers expect boys to misbehave and girls to be more obedient than boys (Snowman & Biehler, 2006). Such stereotypes are firmly rooted in American culture. On television, a girl is far more likely to be portrayed playing with dolls than playing outdoors, covered in dirt. With few exceptions, print, television, and Web advertisements show females attired in elegant dresses or attired casually only when performing household tasks.

Because such gender stereotypes continue to pervade American culture, females aspiring to obtain advanced degrees in the sciences and mathematics are repeatedly induced to consider the “typical” role of a woman. Therefore, it is important that every level of education, from grade school through higher education, must emphasize the opportunities available for both genders. Yet, gender stereotypes continue to be substantiated at every level of education. For example, Lehigh University requires the completion of a graduate level course, “Diversity and Multicultural Perspectives”, for every graduate student in the College of Education. A core area of study in the aforementioned course is the role of gender bias in American society. Interestingly, an informal analysis of the staffs of some Lehigh University science and mathematic departments (Lehigh University, 2006) reveals that there is a small percentage of female faculty members in each department:

Department	Female Faculty	Total Faculty
Biology	7	21
Chemistry	2	21
Mathematics	1	25
Physics	0	23

Clearly, the information displayed above is a very small sample of females in academia and of the contributions of females to the sciences and mathematics. However, if respect for all cultures is requisite for instructors, instructional designers, and any other professional associated with instruction, the same respect and opportunity must be afforded to both genders in those cultures. Institutions of higher learning that espouse the enrichment to learning that cultural diversity affords must make every effort to promote diversity throughout its organization.

References

Snowman, J. & Biehler, R. (2006). Psychology applied to teaching (11^th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Lehigh University, College of Arts and Sciences (n.d.). Departments. Retrieved October 2, 2006, from http://www3.lehigh.edu/arts-sciences/casdepts.asp